East of the sun and west of the moon

ONCE upon a time there was a poor husbandman who had many children and little to give them in the way either of food or clothing. They were all pretty, but the prettiest of all was the youngest daughter, who was so beautiful that there were no bounds to her beauty.

So once -- it was late on a Thursday evening in autumn, and wild weather outside, terribly dark, and raining so heavily and blowing so hard that the walls of the cottage shook again -- they were all sitting together by the fireside, each of them busy with something or other, when suddenly some one rapped three times against the window- pane. The man went out to see what could be the matter, and when he got out there stood a great big white bear.

"Good-evening to you," said the White Bear.

"Good-evening," said the man.

"Will you give me your youngest daughter?" said the White Bear; "if you will, you shall be as rich as you are now poor.

Truly the man would have had no objection to be rich, but he thought to himself: "I must first ask my daughter about this," so he went in and told them that there was a great white bear outside who had faithfully promised to make them all rich if he might but have the youngest daughter.

She said no, and would not hear of it; so the man went out again, and settled with the White Bear that he should come again next Thursday evening, and get her answer. Then the man persuaded her, and talked so much to her about the wealth that they would have, and what a good thing it would be for herself, that at last she made up her mind to go, and washed and mended all her rags, made herself as smart as she could, and held herself in readiness to set out. Little enough had she to take away with her.

Next Thursday evening the White Bear came to fetch her. She seated herself on his back with her bundle, and thus they departed. When they had gone a great part of the way, the White Bear said: "Are you afraid?"

"No, that I am not," said she.

"Keep tight hold of my fur, and then there is no danger," said he.

And thus she rode far, far away, until they came to a great mountain. Then the White Bear knocked on it, and a door opened, and they went into a castle where there were many brilliantly lighted rooms which shone with gold and silver, likewise a large hall in which there was a well-spread table, and it was so magnificent that it would be hard to make anyone understand how splendid it was. The White Bear gave her a silver bell, and told her that when she needed anything she had but to ring this bell, and what she wanted would appear. So after she had eaten, and night was drawing near, she grew sleepy after her journey, and thought she would like to go to bed.

She rang the bell, and scarcely had she touched it before she found herself in a chamber where a bed stood ready made for her, which was as pretty as anyone could wish to sleep in. It had pillows of silk, and curtains of silk fringed with gold, and everything that was in the room was of gold or silver, but when she had lain down and put out the light a man came and lay down beside her, and behold it was the White Bear, who cast off the form of a beast during the night. She never saw him, however, for he always came after she had put out her light, and went away before daylight appeared.

So all went well and happily for a time, but then she began to be very sad and sorrowful, for all day long she had to go about alone; and she did so wish to go home to her father and mother and brothers and sisters. Then the White Bear asked what it was that she wanted, and she told him that it was so dull there in the mountain, and that she had to go about all alone, and that in her parents' house at home there were all her brothers and sisters, and it was because she could not go to them that she was so sorrowful.

"There might be a cure for that," said the White Bear, "if you would but promise me never to talk with your mother alone, but only when the others are there too; for she will take hold of your hand," he said, "and will want to lead you into a room to talk with you alone; but that you must by no means do, or you will bring great misery on both of us."

So one Sunday the White Bear came and said that they could now set out to see her father and mother, and they journeyed thither, she sitting on his back, and they went a long, long way, and it took a long, long time; but at last they came to a large white farmhouse, and her brothers and sisters were running about outside it, playing, and it was so pretty that it was a pleasure to look at it.

"Your parents dwell here now," said the White Bear; "but do not forget what I said to you, or you will do much harm both to yourself and me."

"No, indeed," said she, "I shall never forget;" and as soon as she was at home the White Bear turned round and went back again.

There were such rejoicings when she went in to her parents that it seemed as if they would never come to an end. Everyone thought that he could never be sufficiently grateful to her for all she had done for them all. Now they had everything that they wanted, and everything was as good as it could be. They all asked her how she was getting on where she was. All was well with her too, she said; and she had everything that she could want. What other answers she gave I cannot say, but I am pretty sure that they did not learn much from her. But in the afternoon, after they had dined at midday, all happened just as the White Bear had said. Her mother wanted to talk with her alone in her own chamber. But she remembered what the White Bear had said, and would on no account go. "What we have to say can be said at any time," she answered. But somehow or other her mother at last persuaded her, and she was forced to tell the whole story. So she told how every night a man came and lay down beside her when the lights were all put out, and how she never saw him, because he always went away before it grew light in the morning, and how she continually went about in sadness, thinking how happy she would be if she could but see him, and how all day long she had to go about alone, and it was so dull and solitary. "Oh!" cried the mother, in horror, "you are very likely sleeping with a troll! But I will teach you a way to see him. You shall have a bit of one of my candles, which you can take away with you hidden in your breast. Look at him with that when he is asleep, but take care not to let any tallow drop upon him."

So she took the candle, and hid it in her breast, and when evening drew near the White Bear came to fetch her away. When they had gone some distance on their way, the White Bear asked her if everything had not happened just as he had foretold, and she could not but own that it had. "Then, if you have done what your mother wished," said he, "you have brought great misery on both of us." "No," she said, "I have not done anything at all." So when she had reached home and had gone to bed it was just the same as it had been before, and a man came and lay down beside her, and late at night, when she could hear that he was sleeping, she got up and kindled a light, lit her candle, let her light shine on him, and saw him, and he was the handsomest prince that eyes had ever beheld, and she loved him so much that it seemed to her that she must die if she did not kiss him that very moment. So she did kiss him; but while she was doing it she let three drops of hot tallow fall upon his shirt, and he awoke. "What have you done now?" said he; "you have brought misery on both of us. If you had but held out for the space of one year I should have been free. I have a step-mother who has bewitched me so that I am a white bear by day and a man by night; but now all is at an end between you and me, and I must leave you, and go to her. She lives in a castle which lies east of the sun and west of the moon, and there too is a princess with a nose which is three ells long, and she now is the one whom I must marry."

She wept and lamented, but all in vain, for go he must. Then she asked him if she could not go with him. But no, that could not be. "Can you tell me the way then, and I will seek you -- that I may surely be allowed to do!"

"Yes, you may do that," said he; "but there is no way thither. It lies east of the sun and west of the moon, and never would you find your way there."

When she awoke in the morning both the Prince and the castle were gone, and she was lying on a small green patch in the midst of a dark, thick wood. By her side lay the self-same bundle of rags which she had brought with her from her own home. So when she had rubbed the sleep out of her eyes, and wept till she was weary, she set out on her way, and thus she walked for many and many a long day, until at last she came to a great mountain. Outside it an aged woman was sitting, playing with a golden apple. The girl asked her if she knew the way to the Prince who lived with his stepmother in the castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon, and who was to marry a princess with a nose which was three ells long. "How do you happen to know about him?" inquired the old woman; "maybe you are she who ought to have had him." "Yes, indeed, I am," she said. "So it is you, then?" said the old woman; "I know nothing about him but that he dwells in a castle which is east of the sun and west of the moon. You will be a long time in getting to it, if ever you get to it at all; but you shall have the loan of my horse, and then you can ride on it to an old woman who is a neighbor of mine: perhaps she can tell you about him. When you have got there you must just strike the horse beneath the left ear and bid it go home again; but you may take the golden apple with you."

So the girl seated herself on the horse, and rode for a long, long way, and at last she came to the mountain, where an aged woman was sitting outside with a gold carding-comb. The girl asked her if she knew the way to the castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon; but she said what the first old woman had said: "I know nothing about it, but that it is east of the sun and west of the moon, and that you will be a long time in getting to it, if ever you get there at all; but you shall have the loan of my horse to an old woman who lives the nearest to me: perhaps she may know where the castle is, and when you have got to her you may just strike the horse beneath the left ear and bid it go home again." Then she gave her the gold carding-comb, for it might, perhaps, be of use to her, she said.

So the girl seated herself on the horse, and rode a wearisome long way onward again, and after a very long time she came to a great mountain, where an aged woman was sitting, spinning at a golden spinning-wheel. Of this woman, too, she inquired if she knew the way to the Prince, and where to find the castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon. But it was only the same thing once again. "Maybe it was you who should have had the Prince," said the old woman. "Yes, indeed, I should have been the one," said the girl. But this old crone knew the way no better than the others -- it was east of the sun and west of the moon, she knew that, "and you will be a long time in getting to it, if ever you get to it at all," she said; "but you may have the loan of my horse, and I think you had better ride to the East Wind, and ask him: perhaps he may know where the castle is, and will blow you thither. But when you have got to him you must just strike the horse beneath the left ear, and he will come home again." And then she gave her the golden spinning-wheel, saying: "Perhaps you may find that you have a use for it."#p#

The girl had to ride for a great many days, and for a long and wearisome time, before she got there; but at last she did arrive, and then she asked the East Wind if he could tell her the way to the Prince who dwelt east of the sun and west of the moon. "Well," said the East Wind, "I have heard tell of the Prince, and of his castle, but I do not know the way to it, for I have never blown so far; but, if you like, I will go with you to my brother the West Wind: he may know that, for he is much stronger than I am. You may sit on my back, and then I can carry you there." So she seated herself on his back, and they did go so swiftly! When they got there, the East Wind went in and said that the girl whom he had brought was the one who ought to have had the Prince up at the castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon, and that now she was traveling about to find him again, so he had come there with her, and would like to hear if the West Wind knew whereabout the castle was. "No," said the West Wind; "so far as that have I never blown; but if you like I will go with you to the South Wind, for he is much stronger than either of us, and he has roamed far and wide, and perhaps he can tell you what you want to know. You may seat yourself on my back, and then I will carry you to him."

So she did this, and journeyed to the South Wind, neither was she very long on the way. When they had got there, the West Wind asked him if he could tell her the way to the castle that lay east of the sun and west of the moon, for she was the girl who ought to marry the Prince who lived there. "Oh, indeed!" said the South Wind, "is that she? Well," said he, "I have wandered about a great deal in my time, and in all kinds of places, but I have never blown so far as that. If you like, however, I will go with you to my brother, the North Wind; he is the oldest and strongest of all of us, and if he does not know where it is no one in the whole world will be able to tell you. You may sit upon my back, and then I will carry you there." So she seated herself on his back, and off he went from his house in great haste, and they were not long on the way. When they came near the North Wind's dwelling, he was so wild and frantic that they felt cold gusts a long while before they got there. "What do you want?" he roared out from afar, and they froze as they heard.

Said the South Wind: "It is I, and this is she who should have had the Prince who lives in the castle which lies east of the sun and west of the moon. And now she wishes to ask you if you have ever been there, and can tell her the way, for she would gladly find him again."

"Yes," said the North Wind, "I know where it is. I once blew an aspen leaf there, but I was so tired that for many days afterward I was not able to blow at all. However, if you really are anxious to go there, and are not afraid to go with me, I will take you on my back, and try if I can blow you there."

"Get there I must," said she; "and if there is any way of going I will; and I have no fear, no matter how fast you go."

"Very well then," said the North Wind; "but you must sleep here to-night, for if we are ever to get there we must have the day before us."

The North Wind woke her betimes next morning, and puffed himself up, and made himself so big and so strong that it was frightful to see him, and away they went, high up through the air, as if they would not stop until they had reached the very end of the world. Down below there was such a storm! It blew down woods and houses, and when they were above the sea the ships were wrecked by hundreds. And thus they tore on and on, and a long time went by, and then yet more time passed, and still they were above the sea, and the North Wind grew tired, and more tired, and at last so utterly weary that he was scarcely able to blow any longer, and he sank and sank, lower and lower, until at last he went so low that the waves dashed against the heels of the poor girl he was carrying. "Art thou afraid?" said the North Wind. "I have no fear," said she; and it was true. But they were not very, very far from land, and there was just enough strength left in the North Wind to enable him to throw her on to the shore, immediately under the windows of a castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon; but then he was so weary and worn out that he was forced to rest for several days before he could go to his own home again.

Next morning she sat down beneath the walls of the castle to play with the golden apple, and the first person she saw was the maiden with the long nose, who was to have the Prince. "How much do you want for that gold apple of yours, girl?" said she, opening the window. "It can't be bought either for gold or money," answered the girl. "If it cannot be bought either for gold or money, what will buy it? You may say what you please," said the Princess.

"Well, if I may go to the Prince who is here, and be with him to-night, you shall have it," said the girl who had come with the North Wind. "You may do that," said the Princess, for she had made up her mind what she would do. So the Princess got the golden apple, but when the girl went up to the Prince's apartment that night he was asleep, for the Princess had so contrived it. The poor girl called to him, and shook him, and between whiles she wept; but she could not wake him. In the morning, as soon as day dawned, in came the Princess with the long nose, and drove her out again. In the daytime she sat down once more beneath the windows of the castle, and began to card with her golden carding-comb; and then all happened as it had happened before. The Princess asked her what she wanted for it, and she replied that it was not for sale, either for gold or money, but that if she could get leave to go to the Prince, and be with him during the night, she should have it. But when she went up to the Prince's room he was again asleep, and, let her call him, or shake him, or weep as she would, he still slept on, and she could not put any life in him. When daylight came in the morning, the Princess with the long nose came too, and once more drove her away. When day had quite come, the girl seated herself under the castle windows, to spin with her golden spinning-wheel, and the Princess with the long nose wanted to have that also. So she opened the window, and asked what she would take for it. The girl said what she had said on each of the former occasions -- that it was not for sale either for gold or for money, but if she could get leave to go to the Prince who lived there, and be with him during the night, she should have it.

"Yes," said the Princess, "I will gladly consent to that."

But in that place there were some Christian folk who had been carried off, and they had been sitting in the chamber which was next to that of the Prince, and had heard how a woman had been in there who had wept and called on him two nights running, and they told the Prince of this. So that evening, when the Princess came once more with her sleeping-drink, he pretended to drink, but threw it away behind him, for he suspected that it was a sleeping-drink. So, when the girl went into the Prince's room this time he was awake, and she had to tell him how she had come there. "You have come just in time," said the Prince, "for I should have been married to-morrow; but I will not have the long-nosed Princess, and you alone can save me. I will say that I want to see what my bride can do, and bid her wash the shirt which has the three drops of tallow on it. This she will consent to do, for she does not know that it is you who let them fall on it; but no one can wash them out but one born of Christian folk: it cannot be done by one of a pack of trolls; and then I will say that no one shall ever be my bride but the woman who can do this, and I know that you can." There was great joy and gladness between them all that night, but the next day, when the wedding was to take place, the Prince said, "I must see what my bride can do." "That you may do," said the stepmother.

"I have a fine shirt which I want to wear as my wedding shirt, but three drops of tallow have got upon it which I want to have washed off, and I have vowed to marry no one but the woman who is able to do it. If she cannot do that, she is not worth having."

Well, that was a very small matter, they thought, and agreed to do it. The Princess with the long nose began to wash as well as she could, but, the more she washed and rubbed, the larger the spots grew. "Ah! you can't wash at all," said the old troll-hag, who was her mother. "Give it to me." But she too had not had the shirt very long in her hands before it looked worse still, and, the more she washed it and rubbed it, the larger and blacker grew the spots.

So the other trolls had to come and wash, but, the more they did, the blacker and uglier grew the shirt, until at length it was as black as if it had been up the chimney. "Oh," cried the Prince, "not one of you is good for anything at all! There is a beggar-girl sitting outside the window, and I'll be bound that she can wash better than any of you! Come in, you girl there!" he cried. So she came in. "Can you wash this shirt clean?" he cried. "Oh! I don't know," she said; "but I will try." And no sooner had she taken the shirt and dipped it in the water than it was white as driven snow, and even whiter than that. "I will marry you," said the Prince.

Then the old troll-hag flew into such a rage that she burst, and the Princess with the long nose and all the little trolls must have burst too, for they have never been heard of since. The Prince and his bride set free all the Christian folk who were imprisoned there, and took away with them all the gold and silver that they could carry, and moved far away from the castle which lay east of the sun and west of the moon.

  Poor husbandman: A husbandman is "a person who operates a farm" (WordNet).

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  Many children: In the days before more reliable birth control, birth rates in families were higher. Infant mortality was also higher. If many children survived, the ability for a poor family to provide for all of the needs of the househould would be significantly lessened. Before the advent of more efficient welfare systems, some poor families would use different methods to feed everyone, including child labor, child abandonment, and selling children, including into slavery. Some of these issues are addressed by fairy tales.
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  Food or clothing: Food, clothing, and shelter are the basic needs for survival. These are the needs children rely upon their parents to provide so they can reach adulthood and fend for themselves. Another tale in which parents struggle to provide for their children's basic needs is Hansel and Gretel.
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  Youngest daughter: Fairy tales often contain multiple siblings in which the youngest becomes the protagonist. Traditional folklore is primarily interested in only children or youngest siblings. Either the youngest is the most beautiful and worthy--often female protagonists--or the youngest is stupid and lucky--often male protagonists. In either scenario, the youngest achieves good fortune through an adventure and/or magical helper. "It is the modest, the humble, and often the dispossessed who are elevated to noble rank" (Tatar, 2002, 235).

The youngest is the least experienced and perhaps most protected of the children in a family. The youngest is also the child least likely to receive a financial inheritance in the days when the eldest son received the bulk of a father's estate. The youngest would consequently find it necessary to know how to fend for themselves in the world by marrying well or choosing a career.
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  So beautiful that there were no bounds to her beauty: In this tale, the daughter's beauty makes her desirable to a mysterious stranger, an animal bridegroom. This beauty is not a complete blessing for the daughter. While she can give herself to the animal bridegroom and thus relieve her family's financial burdens, she is essentially forced into an arranged wedding with a stranger on account of her beauty. Her beauty is a blessing for her family and somewhat of a curse for herself, at least at this point in the story.

In Cupid and Psyche, Venus is jealous of Psyche's beauty and tries to have her married to the ugliest creature, but her son Cupid falls in love with Psyche and marries her instead.
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  Thursday evening: Fairy tales do not usually provide detailed settings of time, such as the day of the week and season, like the one provided in this tale.

Thursday is named after the Norse god of thunder and the sky, Thor. Thor, the son of Odin, is one of the most popular and powerful gods in Norse mythology. "The Norse believed that during a thunderstorm, Thor rode through the heavens on his chariot pulled by the goats Tanngrisni ("gap-tooth") and Tanngnost ("tooth grinder"). Lightning flashed whenever he threw his hammer Mjollnir." He was the "the protector of both gods and humans against the forces of evil" (Lindemans, Pantheon.org).
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  Autumn: Once again, fairy tales do not usually provide detailed settings of time, such as the day of the week and season, like the one provided in this tale.

Autumn is "the third season of the year, or the season between summer and winter, often called ``the fall.'' Astronomically, it begins in the northern temperate zone at the autumnal equinox, about September 23, and ends at the winter solstice, about December 23; but in popular language, autumn, in America, comprises September, October, and November" (Webster's 1990).
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  Terribly dark, and raining so heavily and blowing so hard: In other words, it was a dark and stormy night, the now cliched setting for a story.
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  Three times: The number and/or pattern of three often appears in fairy tales to provide rhythm and suspense. The pattern adds drama and suspense while making the story easy to remember and follow. The third event often signals a change and/or ending for the listener/reader.

The reasons and theories behind three's popularity are numerous and diverse. The number has been considered powerful across history in different cultures and religions, but not all of them. Christians have the Trinity, the Chinese have the Great Triad (man, heaven, earth), and the Buddhists have the Triple Jewel (Buddha, Dharma, Sanga). The Greeks had the Three Fates. Pythagoras considered three to be the perfect number because it represented everything: the beginning, middle, and end. Some cultures have different powerful numbers, often favoring seven, four and twelve.
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  Against the window-pane: Why the bear knocks on the window and not the door is a mystery. A polite bear also calls on a family at home, by knocking at the door, in Snow White and Rose Red.
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  A great big white bear: The bear is often portrayed as a polar bear in illustrations for the tale although he is not described as such beyond his white fur. The bear is likely a polar bear since they are native to the Arctic Circle, including Norway where this tale is found.

With winter approaching in the tale, it is important to note that polar bears do not hibernate. According to the World Wildlife Federation, "polar bears are clearly at the top of the food chain, and they've been known to kill and eat seals, walrus and even beluga whales. Standing on its hind legs, a male polar bear can look an elephant straight in the eye. The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is the largest terrestrial carnivore. Adult males can measure more than nine feet in length and weigh between 770 to 1,430 pounds" (WWF.org). You read more about Polar Bears on the WWF's Polar Bear Page.

A bear represents bravery, strength, self-restraint, an evil influence, a problem or difficulty, an obstacle, violence, clumsiness, and solitary life (Olderr 1986).
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 "Good-evening to you," said the White Bear: The bear is the first fantasical or magical element to appear in the story. Many scholars do not consider a tale to be a fairy tale unless it has magical elements in it. A talking bear qualifies this story to be a fairy tale.
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  Will you give me your youngest daughter?: Here we have one of the first motifs which make this tale very similar to Beauty and the Beast. A beast asks for the youngest, beautiful daughter. The implication is that he wants to marry her, although a wedding ceremony is usually not acknowledged or detailed until the end of the tale once the enchantment has been broken.
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  I must first ask my daughter about this: In a feminist analysis of the tale, it is surprising that the father asks the daughter if she will go with the bear. In times past, parents had the right to arrange a daughter's marriage without her consent, usually for financial gain either for themselves, their daughter, or both. In fairy tales, it is necessary for the heroine to willingly go to live with the animal bridegroom, thus showing her willingness to sacrifice her desires for her family, a sign of virtue. In Beauty and the Beast, the beast stipulates that Beauty must come to live with him willingly.
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  She said no: In some inaccurate translations, the father refuses the offer first and then the daughter herself decides to go in order to benefit the family without any pressure.
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  Talked so much to her about the wealth: According to Maria Tatar, "the father's callous alacrity to marry his daughter to a monster reveals the degree to which marriage is connected to economic opportunity in many of the old tales. But it is also the event that sets in motion a plot with a happily-ever-after ending" (Tatar 2002, 188).

In From the Beast to the Blonde, Marina Warner theorizes that many fairy tales were created to comfort daughters who faced arranged marriages and leaving their homes to live in the unknown household of their in-laws. While the daughter is reluctant to leave, she is ultimately rewarded with a happy marriage through her honor of her parents and the initial sacrifice of her desires.
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  Washed and mended all her rags, made herself as smart as she could: Most brides would have a dowry of clothing and household items, including linens, to take with them. That the daughter only has rags--not even described as clothing--shows her family's poverty and desperation. The daughter's pride and strength is shown in her personal preparation and care of her few meagre possessions.
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  Came to fetch her: Here the animal bridegroom carries the daughter away from her home to a location unknown by her family. In Beauty and the Beast, Beauty goes to the Beast's castle with her father. In that tale, unlike this one, there is some comfort that the father knows where she is.
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  She seated herself on his back with her bundle: The image of the daughter riding the bear to her new home is popular with illustrators and is often the iconic representation of this tale. To see several illustrators' visions of the tale, visit the Illustrations of East of the Sun and West of the Moon page.
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  Are you afraid?: Once she has made her decision, the heroine faces her betrothed and her future without fear. She is asked several times throughout the tale if she is afraid, but she never is.
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  Keep tight hold of my fur, and then there is no danger: The daughter is encouraged to literally cling to her spouse who will protect her in her journey away from her childhood and into adulthood.
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  Far, far away: Throughout the story, the heroine travels great distances. She travels a great distance, both in her odyssey to her future home and in her quest for love. In Cupid and Psyche, Psyche is first carried to Cupid's palace by Zephyrus, the wind. Later in this tale, the four winds will provide the heroine with transportation on her quest.
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  Mountain: The difference in landscape in Scandinavian tales such as this one from the landscapes found in the Grimms' tales reflects the geographical difference between the two countries. In this tale we have mountains, hills and rivers while in the Grimms' tales we have forests and wooded areas. Both have imposing auras of mystery and power with their natural grandeur.
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  A castle: The enchanted animal bridegroom lives in a castle, similar to the Beast in Beauty and the Beast. Maria Tatar states: "That the castle is in a mountain suggests a kinship between this story and tales about men trapped in wilderness caves and mountain caverns. Kingdoms are often concealed in mountains in myths and folktales. Venus was said to lure her suitors into a palace hidden in a mountain, and Peer Gynt spends time in the hall of the mountain king" (Tatar 2002, 188).
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  Brilliantly lighted rooms which shone with gold and silver: Bright light, gold, silver, and food shows the opulence and wealth of the white bear's home. Lighting was meager and expensive before the harnessing of electricity for power. Only the wealthy could afford bright lighting, which still might be magically enhanced, as well as gold and silver, precious metals limited to households of the higher classes.

Gold represents virtue, intelligence, superiority, heaven, worldly wealth, idolatry, revealed truth, marriage, and fruitfulness (Olderr 1986).
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  Ring this bell, and what she wanted would appear: The magical castle, with its invisible servants, appears in Cupid and Psyche as well as Beauty and the Beast. Psyche receives the omnipresent service since she is in the home of a god, Cupid, with the divine powers associated with a mythological god. The other heroines live in a home of enchantment where every physical desire is met. They have moved from poverty to complete luxury. Supposedly they should be content and feel no more want, but they also know there is more to life than physical luxury.
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  A bed: In some inaccurate translations of the tale, there are two beds in the room, one for the woman and one for her mysterious visitor. Since no marriage ceremony has been described, two beds were more acceptable by a larger audience, especially during Victorian times and the first half of the 20th century in which married couples on television slept in separate beds. Cupid and Psyche are described as married at this point in the story, while this tale is less exact on this point.
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  Put out the light a man came and lay down beside her: Note that the heroine is not asked to sleep with a beast, but a man. While animal bridegroom stories are abundant around the world, the maiden often finds herself sleeping with a human male in her marriage bed.

Many analysts believe animal bridegroom tales are intended to alleviate a maiden's fears of the marriage bed. While her husband may appear to be a beast before their marriage, she will learn that he is simply a caring man once the marriage is consummated.
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  Cast off the form of a beast: Shapeshifting is a common motif in folklore and found in almost every culture around the world, often attributed to gods and mythical creatures, but sometimes practiced by humans. The change can either be voluntary or imposed through enchantment, as it is here. The most common types of shapeshifting for humans usually involves changing into a bear or wolf, especially for men. Shapeshifting is often instigated by the rising or setting of the sun or moon.
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  Never saw him: The only stipulation for this heroine (and Psyche, her counterpart) to retain all of her new wealth and luxury is that she cannot look upon her spouse. This tale, like Bluebeard, has often been interpreted as a warning against feminine curiosity.
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  She did so wish to go home to her father and mother and brothers and sisters: Homesickness for family is usually the catalyst for the next events in the story. The heroine's inability to be happy in her new home and let go of her old one causes the lovers to be separated and nearly causes the destruction of her lover.
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  Promise me never to talk with your mother alone: Promises, while important today, were more powerful in the past when honor was a great motivator. Also, before the time of literacy among the masses and written contracts, verbal promises were given greater weight. A promise was a contract and actionable by law if broken. Folklore emphasizes the importance of a promise by meting punishment upon those who do not keep their promises.
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  You will bring great misery on both of us: In each of these tales, the bridegroom emphasizes the inherent danger of the bride's family visit, but each loves his bride enough to want her to have all of her desires met. In Beauty and the Beast, the Beasts says, "I cannot refuse you anything you ask, even though it should cost me my life."
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  Troll: Trolls originated in Scandinavian folklore. They are large and powerful monsters, enemies to humans. Some protagonists in folklore seek the treasures hidden by trolls in their castles or simply to rescue another human captured by a troll. They are similar to ogres in that they have low intelligence and can often be defeated through a battle of wits. They travel at night and live in darkness since their greatest weakness is sunlight. Direct sunlight will cause them to either burst or turn to stone (Jones 1995). Trolls also appear on this site in The Three Billy Goats Gruff.
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  I will teach you a way to see him: In Cupid and Psyche, the heroine's sisters encourage her to look at her husband in his sleep. The sisters are jealous and hope to replace their sister. The mother appears to be genuinely concerned about her daughter's welfare. While the mother's intentions might be good, the heroine's fault lies in listening to her mother and/or sisters instead of her new husband's counsel, always a danger in marriages.
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  A bit of one of my candles: Candles have been a source of light for centuries, taking on different forms and derived from various materials. The real question here is why the heroine didn't think to use a candle before now to relieve her curiosity. Perhaps, as some modern interpretations of the tale have suggested, all of the candles in the castle were enchanted and prevented her from using them for this purpose.
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  Tallow: Tallow is "obtained from suet [hard fat around the kidneys and loins in beef and mutton] and used in making soap, candles and lubricants" (WordNet). Tallow can be made by rendering other types of animal fat, too. Because of tallow's offensive odor, beeswax or other waxes derived from plants was preferred although more expensive to produce in times past. Tallow became virtually obsolete in the 19th century with the advent of paraffin.
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  The handsomest prince: Princes are as handsome as the princesses are beautiful in fairy tales. Often, the ugliness or fierceness of the animal bridegroom balances the beauty of the disenchanted prince. The two extremes make one person, the bridegroom.
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  She did kiss him: Here we have the heroine waking the prince with a kiss, but with disasterous results. The prince in Sleeping Beauty, however, wakens the sleeping princess with positive results.
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  She let three drops of hot tallow fall upon his shirt, and he awoke: The bear, like Cupid in Cupid and Psyche, is literally burned by the love and curiosity of Psyche. This event is not a surprise. The heroine has failed to heed each of the admonitions she has received. Now the true suspense comes in wondering what price she will pay for her disobedience.
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  I have a step-mother who has bewitched me: Very few of the animal bridegroom tales explain the reason for the bridegroom's enchantment.

The image of the evil stepmother occurs frequently in fairy tales. She is associated with jealousy and cruelty (Olderr 1986). "In masculine psychology, the stepmother is a symbol of the unconscious in a destructive role" (von Franz 1970). The stepmother figure is actually two sided, in that while she has destructive intentions, her actions often lead the protagonist into situations that identify and strengthen his or her best qualities.
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  East of the sun and west of the moon: The title of the tale, obviously derived from the place where the heroine must find her beloved, has a mysterious, otherworldly sound since it is virtually impossible to reach. The phrase has been used in song and verse, as well as literature to convey a far away, romantic location and occasionally everywhere.
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  A princess: Note the bridegroom's apparent desire to marry for love, not the requirements of station. Since his betrothed proved unfaithful, he is required to marry a princess who matches his rank, however undesirable she may be.
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  Three ells long: An ell is a unit of measure for cloth, now rarely used. It is of different lengths in different countries; the English ell being 45 inches, the Dutch or Flemish ell is 27 inches, and the Scotch about 37 inches. In England that would make her nose 135 inches long (Webster's 1990).
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  She now is the one whom I must marry: In the Beauty and the Beast subcategory of animal bridegroom tales, the enchantment is broken once Beauty realizes she loves the beast and declares her love for him. Then she learns that he is actually a man under an enchantment. In the tales more closely related to Cupid and Psyche, however, the heroine needs to wait over a given time period for the enchantment to end. Her impatience to see the true figure of her husband causes the curse to separate them. The husband must go and marry another with his first marriage virtually annulled by his wife's indiscretion.
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  Self-same bundle of rags: Since her commitment was been broken, all of the riches and luxuries she received have been revoked. She is returned to the same state in which she began the story.
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  She set out on her way: Note that the daughter, like her predecessor Psyche in Cupid and Psyche, is "brought to happiness by obedience and trial; hers are outer obstacles while Beauty's are inner conflicts resolved by free will" (Hearne 1989, 19). This is perhaps the most significant difference between the stories, making Beauty and the Beast the preferred story with our modern sensibilities.

In the Cupid and Psyche tale as recorded by Apuleius, Psyche is pregnant throughout her search for the missing Cupid. The baby, named Pleasure, is born after she is reunited with Cupid. Later versions of the tale, such as the one by Thomas Bulfinch, omit this detail.

Folklore heros, and occasionally heroines, are often given quests and/or tasks to achieve a reward. Here the heroine must search for her husband to prove her worthiness and dedication after her indiscretion. The most famous quest in folklore is perhaps that of King Arthur's knights and their search for the Holy Grail.
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  An aged woman: The heroine will meet three aged women, see the note about the pattern of three above, who will give her guidance and gifts to help her with her quest. Old crones are often sources of wisdom and advice in fairy tales, as well as gifts to help younger characters on quests. Sometimes the old women are gods, fairies, or angels in disguise.
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  A golden apple: According to Maria Tatar, "heroines of folklore are often the recipients of domestic items made out of gold, tokens of the way in which the ordinary can take on the quality of the extraordinary" (Tatar 2002, 193). In contrast, Snow White is given a poisonous apple by an old crone in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.

In times past, offering an apple was a symbol of love and affection (Philip 1997). The apple was sacred to Aphrodite and represented knowledge, especially sexual knowledge, fertility and love.
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  She who ought to have had him: The aged women appear to give the heroine help since she is the first and true bride of the prince, not for any of her own virtues. In this way, the tale upholds the sanctity of marriage.
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  Loan of my horse: Horses are intelligent, strong animals highly valued and sometimes worshipped in numerous cultures. The lending of a horse is a sign of trust and faith. Horses are often considered lucky in folklore.
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  A gold carding-comb: Again, the heroine receives a golden example of a domestic item, this time a carding-comb. A carding-comb is "a toothed instrument used for separating and cleansing wool, flax, hair, etc." (Webster's 1990). It is used in clothing production, a traditionally feminine domestic chore.
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  A golden spinning-wheel: Spinning wheels have long been important in folklore, especially in tales like Sleeping Beauty and Rumpelstiltskin. A spinning wheel is "a small domestic spinning machine with a single spindle that is driven by hand or foot" (WordNet). It is used to produce flax for cloth production, a traditionally feminine domestic chore.
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  East Wind: The heroine will now receive help from the four winds, figuratively traveling to the four corners of the earth in search of her lover. While the winds are often portrayed in conflict with each other, in this tale they work together to help the heroine achieve her goal.

In European folklore, each of the four winds has a different personality. The gentle East Wind brings warmth and rain. The vigorous West Wind brings dry weather. The South Wind brings heat and drought. The North Wind is the strongest of the four and brings winter and bitter cold to Northern Europe. (Jobes 1961, 1682-1683). The genders of the winds are malleable and often not designated as they are in this tale.

In Greek mythology, Notus is the god of the South Wind, Eurus is the god of the East Wind, Zephyrus is the god of the West Wind, and Boreas is the god of the North Wind (Lindemans, Pantheon.org).
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  North Wind: In the Arctic Circle, where Norway and this tale is found, the north wind would be considered especially cold and fierce, the strongest and most dreaded of the four winds.
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  If I may go to the Prince who is here, and be with him to-night, you shall have it: According to Maria Tatar: "The 'true bride' often tricks the 'false bride' into letting her spend the night with the prince, or, as in this tale, she bribes her. The imposter bride is always eager to take possession of an object and will sacrifice the prince's welfare for material gain" (Tatar 2002, 198). For a different type of tale with a false bride and a true bride, read The Goose Girl.
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  He was asleep: Sleeping potions are common in fairy tales, such as in The Twelve Dancing Princesses in which suitors are drugged to keep them from learning a secret.
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  She could not wake him: Here we irony. The heroine lost her husband by accidentally waking him. Now she cannot wake him to get him back.
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  Christian folk: Asbjornsen and Moe included the reference to Christian folk in the original Danish. This was not a translator's choice of words. As Christianity spread across Europe, Christian messages and icons were added to the traditional folklore. The Grimms in Germany added many Christian themes and images to their recordings of German folktales. It is not certain if the Christian reference was added by the Asbjornsen and Moe or was included in their original source material.
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  Wash the shirt which has the three drops of tallow on it: Here the washing came take on several meanings. First the maiden's ability to clean the garment would mark her as skilled at domestic arts and thus a suitable bride.

Second, the heroine is accomplishing a difficult task, removing a settled stain from clothing. Psyche, in Cupid and Psyche, has to perform three impossible tasks to prove her devotion to Cupid.

Third, the endeavour emphasizes the Christian themes of forgiveness and purity. The maiden is washed clean of her sins when she cleans the shirt--which becomes as white as driven snow--since she is now shown to be of the Christian faith. In many religions, brides go through ritualistic cleansing before their marriage. The pagan creatures--the trolls--only make the shirt dirtier and blacker as they attempt to clean it. Their failed attempts to remove the spot is reminiscent of Lady MacBeth's inability to remove the vision of blood from her hands in Shakespeare's MacBeth.
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  No one shall ever be my bride but the woman who can do this: In folklore, bride tests are often centered around domestic duties such as cleaning, cooking or sewing. The woman who best completes the domestic tasks is chosen as bride for the prince or suitor.
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  Flew into such a rage that she burst: Trolls are supposed to burst when exposed to sunlight. See more about trolls in the note above. The troll's self-destruction is reminiscent of Rumpelstiltskin's self-destructive rage.
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  Took away with them all the gold and silver that they could carry: Carrying away the treasures of the defeated antagonist is common in fairy tales, including Jack and the Beanstalk and Hansel and Gretel. While supporting the ideals of love, honor, and virtue, fairy tales are very practical, supporting the idea that heros need some degree of material wealth and security to live happily ever after.
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